Review of publicly available academic, industry, and NGO research as well as first-hand personal accounts of the impacts of lithium mining and processing.

Summary:

• Lithium’s recent rapid growth in use in Lithium Ion Batteries (LIB) makes the future supply and demand of the element difficult to predict

• The most economic lithium resources are concentrated in Chile (as well as Argentina and Bolivia) and Australia

• Lithium comes from both hard-rock and brine sources, both of which have similar negative environmental impact

• In particular, there is a concern with high water use in arid regions where the brines are located, and the subsequent impacts it could have on biodiversity and humans

• Protests around opening lithium mines have occurred around the world; questions of “green sacrifice zones” have arisen where local populations (often indigenous) are being asked to sacrifice their land and lives to support the transition to green technologies such as electric vehicles elsewhere

• LIB recycling can be ~25-40% more beneficial than virgin production but it depends on the battery cell chemistry

• Today, not all LIB recycling operations are recovering lithium (but instead cobalt, nickel, and others), due to both prices and the chemistry challenges with lithium itself (which is highly reactive)